All links accessed on November 3, 2025

1. NHS Health A to Z. Swollen ankles, feet and legs (oedema). Page last reviewed January 18 2022. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/oedema/

2. NHS Health A to Z. Swollen arms and hands (oedema). Page last reviewed October 1 2025. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/swollen-arms-and-hands-oedema/

3. D Lent-Schochet & I Jialal. ‘Physiology, Edema’. Stat Pearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Last updated May 1, 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537065/

4. ES Sinnathamby et al. ‘Etiology of Drug-Induced Edema: A Review of Dihydropyridine, Thiazolidinedione, and Other Medications Causing Edema’. Cureus. February 1 2024. 1;16(2):e53400. https://www.cureus.com/articles/217309-etiology-of-drug-induced-edema-a-review-of-dihydropyridine-thiazolidinedione-and-other-medications-causing-edema#!/

5. A Goyal et al. ‘Peripheral Edema’. Stat Pearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Last updated April 5 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554452/

6. J Scallan et al. Chapter 4 ‘Pathophysiology of Edema Formation’ in ‘Capillary Fluid Exchange: Regulation, Functions, and Pathology’. Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences; 2010. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53445/

7. JL Mills & DG Armstrong. ‘Chronic venous insufficiency’. BMJ Best Practice. Last updated July 23 2025. https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/507

8. NHS Health A to Z. Angioedema. Page last reviewed January 18 2023. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/angioedema/

9. UHSM. ‘ACE Inhibitor–induced angioedema’. University Hospital of South Manchester NHS Foundation Trust. 2014. https://mft.nhs.uk/app/uploads/sites/10/2018/05/ACE-induced-angioedema-2014.pdf

10. NHS Inform Illnesses and conditions. Angioedema. Last updated January 17 2025. https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/skin-hair-and-nails/angioedema/

11. CJ Moffat et al. ‘Prevalence and Risk Factors for Chronic Edema in U.K. Community Nursing Services’. Lymphatic Research and Biology. Published online April 22 2019.  https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/lrb.2018.0086

12. NHS Health A to Z. Lymphoedema. Page last reviewed March 29 2023. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/lymphoedema/

13. S Pal et al. Drug-Related Lymphedema: Mysteries, Mechanisms, and Potential Therapies. Frontiers in Pharmacology. March 4 2022. Volume 13. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/pharmacology/articles/10.3389/fphar.2022.850586/full

14. Specialist Pharmacy Service. ‘Managing peripheral oedema caused by calcium channel blockers’. Published September 26 2022. https://www.sps.nhs.uk/articles/managing-peripheral-oedema-caused-by-calcium-channel-blockers/

15. B Largeau et al. ‘Drug-induced peripheral oedema: An aetiology-based review’. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. August 2021. 97;8: 3043-3055. https://bpspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bcp.14752

16. CG Nichols et al. KATP Channels and Cardiovascular Disease: Suddenly a Syndrome. Circulation Research. March 29 2013. 112;7. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.112.300514

17. NHS Medicines A to Z. Amlodipine. ‘Side effects of amlodipine’. Page last reviewed February 18 2022. https://www.nhs.uk/medicines/amlodipine/side-effects-of-amlodipine/

18. NHS Medicines A to Z. Nifedipine. ‘Side effects of nifedipine’. Page last reviewed February 18 2022. https://www.nhs.uk/medicines/nifedipine/side-effects-of-nifedipine/

19. MA Ameer et al. ‘Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitor-Induced Angioedema: A Case Report With a Review of Management Options’. Cureus. June 12 2023. 15(6): e40320. https://www.cureus.com/articles/128857-angiotensin-converting-enzyme-inhibitor-induced-angioedema-a-case-report-with-a-review-of-management-options#!/.

20. M Yasir et al. ‘Corticosteroid Adverse Effects’. Stat Pearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Last updated July 3 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK531462/

21. D Prasad et al. ‘The Story of Aldosterone Escape’. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. October 07, 2025. 10.1681/ASN.0000000908.  https://journals.lww.com/jasn/abstract/9900/the_story_of_aldosterone_escape.797.aspx

22. D Liu et al. A practical guide to the monitoring and management of the complications of systemic corticosteroid therapy. All Asth Clin Immun. August 15 2013. 9, 30. https://aacijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1710-1492-9-30

23. Macmillan Cancer Information Development team. Cancer information and support. Tamoxifen. Macmillan Cancer Support. Last reviewes June 1 2024. https://www.macmillan.org.uk/cancer-information-and-support/treatments-and-drugs/tamoxifen

24. Summaries of Product Characteristics. Electronic Medicines Compendium. https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc

25. S, Hussien et al. ‘Insulin Edema Syndrome due to Rapid Glucose Correction in a Diabetic Patient’. Case Reports in Medicine. Forward Series, Wiley Online Library. August 16 2022. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/3027530

26. AJM Rennings et al. ‘Fluid Retention and Vascular Effects of Rosiglitazone in Obese, Insulin-Resistant, Nondiabetic Subjects’. Diabetes Care. March 1 2006. 29;3: 581–587. https://diabetesjournals.org/care/article-abstract/29/3/581/25393/Fluid-Retention-and-Vascular-Effects-of

27. AJ Scheen. ‘Combined Thiazolidinedione-Insulin Therapy - Should We Be Concerned About Safety?’. Drug-Safety. Published 20 November 2012. Issue date October 2004. 27;841–856. https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00002018-200427120-00002

28. A Subramanian et al. ‘Carbamazepine-induced angioedema’. J Basic Clin Pharma. 2016. 4;7:120-2. https://www.jbclinpharm.org/articles/carbamazepineinduced-angioedema.html

29. NICE guideline NG 106. ‘Chronic heart failure in adults: diagnosis and management’. Published September 12 2018, last updated September 3 2025. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng106

30. NICE BNF. Treatment summaries. Diuretics. https://bnf.nice.org.uk/treatment-summaries/diuretics/

31. NICE BNF. Calcium-channel blockers. https://bnf.nice.org.uk/treatment-summaries/calcium-channel-blockers/

32. A Gani. Rapid Response: ‘Discontinue Amlodipine rather than initiating Thiazide diuretics’. BMJ. 2024. 384:e075174

34. D Hardy. Your questions answered. LSN The Lymphoedema Support Network. Last reviewed October 2022. https://www.lymphoedema.org/information/your-questions-answered/

35. The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. Lymphoedema Frequently Asked Questions. https://www.royalmarsden.nhs.uk/your-care/support-living-with-and-beyond-cancer/guidance-advice/lymphoedema-advice/FAQs